Revolutionary Cosmological Exploration

About the Author

Throughout his career, he has worked as an electronics technician, initially in quality control, then in maintenance, later supplemented by engineering training. In this capacity, he has participated in various projects in electronics across diverse fields such as aeronautics, automotive, energy, the military sector, radar systems, and medical technology.

His interest in cosmology has always been present; having been a long-time skeptic of the big bang theory, he has followed Hubert Reeves' lectures with great interest[*]. The latest observations from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) have led him to actively seek alternative cosmological theories that could replace the big bang. The following study is the result of this contemplation, based on publicly available data.

[*] The author wishes to mention Hubert Reeves' lecture that took place at Parc de la Villette in 2014, which he of course followed with great interest, titled "The Ashes of the Big Bang."

Sharing ideas in a spirit of mutual respect.

The ideas presented on this site are freely accessible; however, if they are to be quoted and further developed, the author requests to be cited.

Warning to the Reader.

The text is written for a general audience, both scientific and amateur. The first parts up to chapter 3 describe concepts that are likely already known to scientists; however, they lay the groundwork for the hypotheses developed later on.

Abstract

Based on observations from the latest JWST telescope and questions raised by certain paradoxes, a reflection is developed leading to a cosmology model that appears more coherent in its conclusions.

First, a brief description of the λCDM standard cosmological model and its strengths is provided. Subsequently, based on an alternative interpretation of the origin of Redshift, an entire cosmology is established. Although derived from concordant observations, the Big Bang would be a projection based on a conceptual error that affects all observations; there would be no physical expansion of galaxies. To address the numerous paradoxes associated with the standard model, the physical history of thereceiver of radiated signals from the distant past must be taken into account. The physical properties in which this same receiver evolved (temperature, spatial and temporal dimension) at the moment the radiation was emitted would need consideration. Following the same principles used by Galileo and Einstein, a reference frame transfer would have to be performed, which this time would take into account the dimension of the receiver over time.

Nucleosynthesis would be present permanently, mainly in the outer regions of galaxies. The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) would originate from the one we are derived from. The inhomogeneities of this diffuse background, however, would be related to the traces emitted by the large structures of the Universe upon it.

Based on observations from the latest JWST telescope and questioning certain paradoxes, a reflection is developed leading to a cosmological model that seems more coherent in its conclusions.

Firstly, it is appropriate to briefly describe the standard ΛCDM cosmological model and what made it so strong. Then, from another interpretation of what could be at the origin of the Redshift, a whole cosmology is established. Although based on concordant observations, the Big Bang would be a debatable projection. The same goes for the expansion of galaxies. To provide an answer to the many paradoxes linked to the standard model, it would be necessary to take into account the physical history of the receiver of signals radiated from a distant past. The physical properties in which this same receiver evolved (temperature, spatial and temporal dimension) at the time when the radiation was emitted would have to be taken into account. Following the same principles used by Galileo and Einstein, a reference frame transfer would have to be carried out, which this time would take into account the dimension of the receiver over time.

Nucleosynthesis would be present essentially in the outer zones of galaxies, in a permanent way. The cosmic microwave background would come from the one from which we originate. Inhomogeneities, on the other hand, would be linked to the traces emitted by the large structures of the Universe on them.

The deductions of this approach would be that the Universe could be infinite in space and without limit in time from the point of view of causality. Dark energy would indeed be linked to observations, but would need to be reinterpreted. Some matter would not be visible for reasons related to the geodesics of a spacetime to be redefined. On large scales, the perception of the gravitational effect would vary according to a notion of spacetime density where baryonic matter is located, which would correspond to the so-called dark matter observations.

The mechanisms of reference frame transfers would still need to be established precisely. However, the strength of this approach lies in the coherence of the analyses with all the observations, including large structures

.

Keywords: Redshift, dark energy, space-time density, temporal coherence, dark matter.

Acknowledgements :

Michael Maschek, teacher and project management consultant, for his advice and proofreading.

Céline Cheslet, schoolteacher, for listening.

Jacqueline Martinez, proofreader, for her advice.

Introduction

The history of cosmology is marked by numerous upheavals. Technological advancements enable spectacular progress in observing the cosmos, yet the theory has evolved little despite many contradictions between what is predicted by it and what is observed. During the 20th century, the scientific consensus shifted from the conception of an infinite and static universe to the Big Bang Theory. However, some of the latest observations challenge the very foundation of this theory, and this new perspective does not seem to be particularly prominent in the realm of scientific popularization. In this article, which begins with a summary of the λCDM model, we highlight certain contradictions. Then, we approach the phenomenon of Redshift in a way that differs from the effect commonly referred to as Doppler. From this alternative analysis, the foundations of an alternative cosmology are constructed, which could also explain the observations of mass variation interpreted as related to dark matter. Below, we revisit a recent observation from JWST[2], which poses a problem for standard scenarios.

[2] JWST: The James Webb (JWST, short for James Webb Space Telescope) is a space telescope that serves as an observatory primarily operating in the infrared, developed by NASA with participation from the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA)

Figure 1 La galaxie massive ZF-UDS-7329 © NASA/Cover Images/SIPA Valisoa Rasolofo & J. Paiano·23 février 2024

Excerpt (translated) from Astro-PH>arXiv:2308.05606, May 3, 2024

"The formation of galaxies through the progressive hierarchical co-assembly of baryons and cold dark matter halos is a fundamental paradigm that underpins modern astrophysics and predicts a strong decline in the number of massive galaxies at the beginning of cosmic time. Extremely massive quiescent galaxies (stellar masses >1011 M⊙) have been observed as early as 1 to 2 billion years after the Big Bang; these are extremely constraining for theoretical models since they form 300 to 500 million years earlier and only certain models can form such massive galaxies this early."

"Detailed modeling shows that the stellar population formed about 1.5 billion years earlier in time (z ~ 11) at a time when dark matter halos of sufficient host mass had not yet assembled in the standard scenario."

This analysis shows that the standard model has significant difficulties in accounting for the presence of massive galaxies at these distances. What these new observations reveal is that large structures do not seem to follow a specific chronology, as was previously suggested. Nevertheless, the big bang theory is not currently being called into question.

Brief Overview of the λCDM Model  

The standard model represents the Universe as a finite whole in time; this theory has a history, the key points of which will be described below. It would evolve according to the artist's depiction below :

Figure 2 Source Sky & Space, no 590, August-September 2023.

Albert Einstein proposed in 1915 a theory that models the effects of gravity in the form of a space-time continuum, which constitutes a four-dimensional universe where physics would manifest. He attempts to put all physical interactions into equations, marking the beginning of general relativity. This theory allows for a better calculation of the movements of bodies through a mathematical formulation based on curved space. The quest for curved space addresses a constraint that Euclidean geometry does not allow: working in a homogeneous space despite the presence of objects occupying a volume of space. This concept provides more accurate calculations of body movements than Newton's formulas and predicts a relationship between gravitational effects and the passage of time.

1. History of the Formation of a Majority Consensus

Friedmann, building on Einstein's equations in 1922, introduced the idea of an expanding universe, which was initially rejected by Albert Einstein. Georges Lemaître outlined the main features of this model in 1927. In 1929, Edwin Hubble observed a redshift in the spectrum coming from distant galaxies, which was attributed to a Doppler effect, leading Einstein to embrace this theory. In 1978, Alan Guth theorized the inflation model associated with the beginning of the Big Bang. In 1964, the "CMB" was accidentally discovered by two physicists. In 1989, the COBE satellite was launched into space to measure the anisotropies of this "CMB" precisely.[3]

[3]This information is taken from the book "The Big Bang: A History" by Simon Singh. The acronym "CMB" stands for cosmic microwave background.

2. Main Pillars of Big Bang Cosmology

a)      Redshift.

Redshift is the English term for redshift; this shift is present in all radiation received from distant space and is proportional to its travel time. Redshift is attributed to the galaxies moving away from each other, commonly referred to as the Doppler effect or more recently as "Einstein's relativistic expansion."

Figure 4 Source NewScientist : How redshift colours our view of the history of the universe, 14 october 2015/

The value of Redshift is expressed in km/s/Mpc.

This corresponds to an expansion of distance in kilometers per second per megaparsec. A parsec is equal to the distance light travels in 3.26 years.

 According to studies, its value would average:

• 67 km/s/Mpc if this data is based on the cosmic microwave background.

• 73 km/s/Mpc if this data is based on observations of known objects like Cepheids.

This difference raises questions, which are described below.

b)      The Cosmic Microwave Background and Primordial Nucleosynthesis.

If we look back in time regarding the temperatures of bodies, we arrive at a point where the temperatures would become very high and matter would be reduced to a plasma of light particles (referred to as "primordial nucleosynthesis"), according to the periodic table of elements, from atomic nuclei 1 to 7, that is, from hydrogen to lithium). Detailed studies prove that there necessarily exists a phase of light element creation before the nuclear fusion phases in stars, which helps explain the abundance of light elements.

In projecting into the past, physicists describe the order of particle creation up to the Planck wall[4]. At a certain energy level, radio radiation would have been emitted during a transition (referred to as "recombination"); we have detected radiation of this kind, which is known as the "cosmic microwave background."

[4] The term "Planck wall" refers to an age of the universe, more specifically around 10^{-44} seconds, beyond which physics as we know it ceases to apply.

Figure 5 Science post: What is the cosmic microwave background, and why is it so important? Brice Louvet, space and science expert July 7, 2023, 4:23 PM

This cosmic microwave background image represents the radiation received from black bodies; it is generally very homogeneous, with additional micro-variations. These can be found in the observation axes of the large structures of the Universe. The standard model of cosmology presupposes that these variations led to the development of the large structures.

Beyond this diffuse background, there would be no observable radiation; the standard model considers that it was preceded by an accelerated expansion known as "inflation" (which would be equivalent to a scalar field).

However, to explain the shapes of spacetime, it was necessary to take into account unobservable matter ("dark matter"), and to explain the distancing of galaxies from each other, it was also necessary to add energy ("dark energy").

c)      Concordance of the temperatures of the coldest bodies.

Currently, the observed light from this diffuse background is -270°C (2.7 K above absolute zero). By projecting into the past, the thermal curve of the coldest elements gradually rises to the plasma of the Planck wall, following the curve below.

Figure 6 Measurement of the coldest bodies according to observation ages, illustration by the author inspired by "The Credibility of the Big Bang Theory" Hubert Reeves, November 21, 2014

The coldest bodies measured in distance in a distant past have a temperature higher than this cooling curve.

d)      Age Concordance.

All the oldest elements (stars, composition of radioactive atoms, and expansion rate) would be consistent with a date starting 13.8 billion years ago. No older elements would be observed.

e)      Laws of particle physics.

What is generally referred to as the "standard model" also includes a set of relationships among elementary particles, allowing for the mathematical prediction of the role of each of them. The existence of numerous particles, theoretically predicted by this model, was validated in subsequent experiments, such as that of the Higgs boson, for example.

2.      Paradoxes and uncertainties left open by Big Bang cosmology [1]

a)      The absence of causality at the initial Big Bang.

The appearance of matter and energy, moreover in a region of spacetime with reduced density, would represent a singularity. This singularity escapes any physical explanation.

b)      The flatness of the universe.

This concept is related to the homogeneity of the cosmic microwave background, which could be explained by a scalar field called "Inflation". However, the models describing this inflation are not entirely satisfactory, and its origin remains unknown.

c)      The matter-antimatter imbalance.

Through the collisions conducted in particle accelerators, when observing the creation of matter, there is simultaneously the creation of equivalent antimatter; as a result, we cannot explain the surplus of remaining matter in the universe, stemming from primordial baryogenesis.

d)      The absence of candidate particles for dark matter.

The standard model does not provide an explanation for the presence of dark matter, which is expected to be extremely abundant in the universe, estimated to constitute about 84 % of the matter.

e)      The Redshift would evolve without any apparent reason.

Throughout the age of the Universe, variations in Redshift are observed, including an acceleration and stabilization that remain unexplained.

f)      There is tension regarding the values of the Redshift.

Depending on the method of analysis, whether based on CMB models or on the calculation of distances from known objects, the values diverge with a statistical difference of 5 Ϭ. This reveals that something is wrong with the assumptions.

g)      The observable universe is mathematically flat overall.

The basic hypothesis of general relativity would be that the universe is isotropic and homogeneous; however, the value of Redshift is different when observing objects within our galaxy versus outside of it. Consequently, it appears non-homogeneous. This difficulty could be explained by dark energy, which would interact outside of galaxies.

h)      The primordial nucleosynthesis model presents anomalies according to the standard model.

According to the model, the neutron's lifespan would be too short (885 s) for it to remain abundant when considering the cooling curve of the original plasma. Additionally, the energy level required for lithium production would not be available during this baryogenesis.

i)      History of Large Structures.

To model a history of large structures consistent with the laws of physics from the origin of the big bang, it is necessary to have a significant amount of dark matter very early on; this would work somewhat like an initial condition, which appears contradictory to the big bang itself.

j)      Absence of explanation concerning the creation of central black holes in galaxies.

The observation of "primordial" galaxies would suggest that central black holes were created prior to the abundant development of stellar systems; the standard model presupposes the existence of direct collapse of gas clouds into black holes.

As Fabrice Nicot comments in an article from Science et Avenir:

"The most classic pathway to the birth of a black hole involves the gravitational collapse of a star. While this process explains the formation of black holes up to a few tens of solar masses—either through the collapse of very massive stars, the merger of smaller black holes, or the gradual accretion of gas over time—it becomes much more complicated when extending it to black holes with several million to several billion solar masses. Whether through merging or accretion, it would take a significant amount of time to create them. However, this does not align with the existence of supermassive black holes formed only 800 million years after the Big Bang."[5]

[5] Science et avenir, Comment-se-sont-formes-les-trous-noirs-les-plus-massifs-de-l-univers, le 11.03.2021 à 10h52

NA : This list of paradoxes is limited, but it includes those that are most accessible to the general public.

 3.            Challenging the Standard Model

Challenging the standard model requires finding other explanations for the observed phenomena. This exploration begins here with questioning the link between Redshift and the increasing distance of galaxies from one another. In this process, it is important to propose a hypothesis that could explain this redshift phenomenon. It turns out that the hypothesis considered here, involving variations at atomic dimensions, aligns with observations of gravitational variations associated with dark matter. Another perspective on what baryogenesis might be could also be the origin of the cosmic microwave background. This would allow for proposing a cosmology that is consistent with all observations.

      Observations of radiation emitted outside the galaxy

A redshift of wavelengths has been observed, meaning an increase in wavelength, commonly referred to as Redshift. This redshift originates from distant radiation. The value of Redshift differs between radiation emitted from our galaxy and that emitted by other galaxies.

First paradox: there is a difference in Redshift between radiation coming from other galaxies and that from objects originating in ours; this point suggests an inhomogeneity of the Universe. Despite this difference in behavior occurring within galaxies compared to intergalactic space, the standard model considers the Universe as a whole to be homogeneous, finite in time and space.

Since a redshift of the spectrum can be associated with distance, it has been concluded that everything outside our galaxy is moving away (see below a 2D view based on 3D observations).

The direction of recession follows the direction of the gaze in proportion to the age of the observed object. In the case of a standard explosion, we should have an anisotropy of receding in the shape of a sphere around the center, which would mean that the Milky Way is at the center of the Universe, constituting a violation of the equivalence principle. This is why this recession has been called "Einstein's relativistic expansion" rather than the Doppler effect. Mathematically, it is indeed possible to have equal expansion in all directions, but this notion used without proof amounts to avoiding a real difficulty.

Below is a conclusion from a study of observations of the Redshift [6] :

" It is shown that the redshift in this case generally depends on the direction of propagation and is dispersive. " " The relationship between these results and a possible violation of the equivalence principle is discussed. "

[6] 1801.05472] "Electromagnetic Redshift in Anisotropic Cosmologies" (arxiv.org). Published on: 01/16/2018

1.      Tension on the Value of the Hubble Constant

The Hubble constant, denoted as H0, describes the speed at which galaxies are moving away from each other. It is based on the interpretation of redshift as being related to a Doppler effect. This constant is expressed in kilometers per second per megaparsec (km/s/Mpc).

A controversy is developing over the calculation of this value.

a)      Values recorded during a comprehensive study [7]

A vast study was conducted on the H0 constant. It involved two teams; one focused on observations from the cosmic microwave background (the "Planck" team), while the other considered known objects and their luminosities (Cepheids, quasars, and others).

These presented a significant divergence, even accounting for measurement uncertainties. 

• "Indirect" measurement by analyzing the cosmic microwave background observed by the Planck satellite (Planck collaboration 2020):

H_0=67.4±0.5 (km/s)⁄Mpc

(Assuming the λCDM cosmological model, which describes the evolution of the universe and its contents)

• "Direct" measurement through the distance scale (Riess et al 2022):

H_0=73.4±1.04 (km/s)⁄Mpc

This study reveals that the measurements of H0 diverge based on the method used; the first shows results close to 67 for all those made from the cosmic microwave background, while the second yields results close to 73 for those made from direct measurements. This statistically significant gap constitutes a "tension" for cosmologists.

[7] Data extracted from the conference "Expansion of the Universe and the Cosmological Controversy", Louise Breuval November 17, 2022

a)      Analysis of these differences

In the standard model, the calculation of redshift from direct measurements relies on the use of objects with well-known intrinsic brightness, such as Cepheids or supernovae. By combining the measurement of their redshift with their distance (deduced from their measured brightness), scientists estimate the rate of recession, represented by H0.

In contrast, determining H0 from cosmological background radiation (CMB) data relies on complex cosmological models. If these models are incorrect, the results obtained are biased.

These two approaches fundamentally differ in the observations and assumptions used. However, the lack of convergence between the H0 values obtained by these two methods raises a crucial question: how far away are the observed objects, and at what speed are they receding?

In our model, the parameter H0 represents the rate of decrease of atomic dimensions in which our region of the universe evolves. This allows us to trace its past evolution by studying ancient waves emitted by assembled atoms. In contrast, the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation would be associated with the baryogenesis of isolated particles. Therefore, it would make sense that the rate observed in this case differs from that obtained from assembled atoms.

2.      Modeling of radiation from distant galaxies

Note: the space-time density parameter is discussed further below.

a)      Fundamental Paradox

At a moment t2, event B (receipt of the wave) occurs. For example, let's say a light signal emitted by a galaxy located 7 billion light-years away arrives at the telescope and gets transformed into an electronic signal.

The telescope at moment t2 is in a determined physical state to receive this signal. It transmits this event, which occurred further back in time at moment t1, according to the same fundamental physical laws.

The emission and reception events are connected by the laws of physics. However, cosmic time has elapsed for both the emitter and the receiver during the time it took the light to travel.

The concept of reference frame transfer was introduced by Galileo: in this case, it allowed for the calculation of coordinates in the receiver's reference frame when two objects meet – one coming from a uniformly moving reference frame, the other being static.

From a causality perspective, there would be a temporal paradox: time has passed for the receiver during the propagation time of the distant radiation. If this time were taken into account, one could consider a reference frame transfer in the past. In what physical state has the matter that makes up the telescope evolved from the moment of signal emission to its reception? Observations would lead to the consideration that this matter would have condensed in a more reduced spacetime during the journey of the radiation.

From a philosophical viewpoint, it is understandable that perception varies based on the observer's experience. At the level of physics, this would translate differently, but time does seem to be taken into account. It would be linked to temporal coherence, which would manifest physically.

b)      Transfer of Time Reference

Application to the physical emissions and receptions of intergalactic radiation, from a dimensional perspective, we pose (we reason here in an EUCLIDEAN space):

The bold parameters would represent dark energy; this would be related to the differential density of space-time of the receiver during the radiation propagation time. This reduction in the size of objects would bring about the Redshift. It is noted that certain distant galaxies and stars would appear larger when viewed from great distances, leading to the hypothesis of "galaxy feedback"[8], which would result from supernovas expelling gas. This would actually be related to the variation of space-time density, and its acceleration would also be connected to the evolution of our region of the universe during the formation of the solar system. Here, we take into account a parameter that does not exist in the theory of general relativity, which uses curved space for the calculation of the trajectories of bodies and light; due to this curved space, the theory of general relativity artificially reduces to a homogeneous background. In the theory of general relativity, effects related to varying space density in a EUCLIDEAN space are not considered, hence the dimensional variation of objects (Constant ALPHA).

[8] In the standard model, scenarios that can reduce the size of galaxies are considered, the main one being the feedback from supernovas; here's the state of the art:

·         When a massive star explodes as a supernova, it releases a vast amount of energy in the form of light, particles, and hot gas.

·         This energy can expel interstellar gas out of the galaxy, slowing down or preventing the formation of new stars.

a)      Temporal Coherence

From an observational and conceptual point of view:

The concept of temporal reference frame transfer is related to the notion of simultaneity in the universe. Referring to the anthropic reasoning used in cosmology: "if we are present, it is because the conditions have been met for that to happen." This notion could be extended to the idea of "the temporal coherence of the universe." There would be events occurring simultaneously at every point in the universe. These events emit information, which leads to modifications in the events that receive this information.

In an image, the universe would be a vast cacophony, where everyone speaks at once, answering the previous question, without always being aware of the last question posed, and already having a new perspective after asking a question. This being true for all the protagonists, the flows of information would be bidirectional, they would be intertwined. Considering information as unidirectional would be a conceptual mistake.

Let's take an example from the field of quantum mechanics, the "simultaneous transmission of quantum states", during disentanglement, would be related to bidirectionality. Let's reason negatively; if a neutrino were to cross a disentangled photon, then a millionth of a second later, cross its still-entangled twin photon, there would be temporal incoherence. Experiments on Bell inequalities would show that the principle of locality would not hold, these experiments rely on mathematical calculations and ultimately demonstrate the existence of this "cosmic time" through quantum entanglement. There would indeed be transfers of reference frames that are almost simultaneous, in relation to temporal coherence, concerning quantum mechanics. This cosmic time would constitute a whole where particles and waves interact simultaneously, such that the transfers of reference frames would be transmitted through the propagation of radiated signals.

Negatively, if it were possible to receive a signal emitted, let's say, 8 billion years ago as if we were there, we would be led to emit a response identical to that which would have occurred in that distant past, but in the current time, this would be a temporal paradox; in other words, the Universe would be incoherent.

From a physical point of view:

The propagation of a wave would be a geometric function that marks spacetime in the direction of emission, but ultimately also the waves that travel in the opposite direction. This would cause the receiver, through a phenomenon of interference, to receive waves marked by the waves it itself has emitted. It is this interaction that would constitute the physical basis of the notion of transfer of temporal reference. Thus, the entire universe would evolve every nanosecond, including baryonic matter and waves.

The difference between a signal unaffected by the receiver's incident wave and a signal influenced by it would be difficult to discern when the travel time of the signal is relatively short. However, this would be the origin of the notion of transfer of temporal reference. In conclusion, to interpret what the underlying reality of the received information is, one would be obliged to consider a unique equation with two unknowns; however, through various analogies, it would be possible to reduce these.

Scope of Perspective

1.     Introduction

The transfer of time reference involves considering the difference between the initial state and the final state of the physical conditions of the receiver. This thus introduces other variations, in addition to the previously mentioned dimensional variation. The idea here is to examine whether this set of variations could correspond to the observations that led to the formulation of the big bang theory.

2.      Large Structures

The surveys below show the differences in observations obtained between the old Hubble telescope and the James Webb:

Figure 8 The primordial galaxies with the James Webb telescope. French Astronomical Society, Wednesday, February 8, 2023 at 7 PM

According to the standard model, the universe evolves simultaneously from the observable maximum of 13.8 billion years. The observational biases noted in the graph above could correspond to this hypothesis. Distant galaxies appeared to be thinner and younger when observed with the old Hubble telescope, and there also seemed to be fewer elliptical galaxies at high redshift. The latest observations obtained with the James Webb telescope no longer align with these scenarios.

Today, there appear to be very large and very old spiral galaxies at high redshift. In summary, the evolution of large structures no longer seems to follow a general pattern consistent with the hypothesis of a big bang occurring about 13.8 billion years ago.

2.      Very Distant Galaxies and Shiny Dust

When we receive an extremely distant signal emitted when the matter in our area of the universe was on the edge of the Milky Way, the transfer of the time reference frame takes into account the conditions under which our matter evolved, which was immersed in a cloud of diffuse matter. It is these same conditions that would allow for a different reception of this diffuse matter. This could be the basis for the observation below.

Figure 9 sciencepost.fr image of the Webb telescope of the galaxy cluster SMACS 0723. The first galaxies of the Universe are surprisingly bright. By Brice Louvet. November 10, 2023

Abstract of the same article:

"In a recent study, the James Webb Space Telescope made a surprising observation: nearly all of the first galaxies in the Universe were surrounded by bright clouds of gas and emitted light more intense than the stars within them. This new discovery once again defies theoretical predictions."

Currently, these observations (as the one mentioned is not unique) would provide evidence that these galaxies have more matter surrounding them, which itself comes from primordial nucleosynthesis. However, why would this gas be more visible than the stars themselves, specifically at these distances?

In our analysis, we would find these clouds of gas around all galaxies, including our own. These would be light particles created at the edge of galaxies by nucleosynthesis. However, if these gases are particularly visible at these observation distances, it would be because these radiations are marked by our own nucleosynthesis.

3.      Measurement of the Variation of Spacetime Density :

Through observations over great distances, the influence of gravitation has been investigated to verify whether the variation of gravitational wells corresponds to EINSTEIN's predictions. See below the readings compared to the predictions :

Figure 10 Excerpt from a conference "Measuring the Deformations of Spacetime with the Deflection of Light" Camille Bonvin and Nastassia Grimm. December 23, 2023, GENEVA

This image would suggest that the measurements do not match what is derived from the equation of general relativity theory, even taking uncertainties into account. The readings at 3.5 billion years and 5 billion years appear to be well below the predictions.

During the videoconference, Camille BONVIN explained that it was not possible to draw a definitive conclusion, as the measurements, considering the margins of error, are not sufficiently significant.

If these measurements are confirmed in the future by the EUCLID satellite, they would reveal a phenomenon unexplained by the standard model. On the other hand, this phenomenon perfectly aligns with our hypotheses that the observed space-time distortions would be due to an observational bias related to the observer's past.

An important distortion is observed dating back to about six billion years, which precisely corresponds to the gravitational collapse of the Oort cloud, leading to the formation of the solar system. This distortion seems to have dissipated once the solar system was structured and stabilized.

From the perspective of interpretation, why favor the idea of an evolution affecting the universe as a whole, rather than considering a possible correlation between these observations and the history of our own past?

From a physical standpoint, the collapse of the Oort cloud could coincide with a significant variation in atomic dimensions at its center, which could interfere with waves coming from deep space.

Thus, waves emitted at a distance less than 6 billion light-years from the solar system would not have encountered the incident wave generated at its formation and therefore would not carry its signature.

4.      Impact of Temporal Reference Frame Transfer

Many observations currently attributed to a global evolution of the universe could find an explanation by integrating the concept of temporal reference frame transfer.

In summary :

·         The Redshift and the perception of the volumes of objects are primarily caused by the dimensional variation of the observer while moving through the galaxy.

·         The relative mass and brightness (mass converted into energy) would be related to the perceived mass based on the density of space-time.

·         The stability of radiation would be associated with the stability of atoms, which would be subjected to reduced pressure from vacuum energy at the outskirts of galaxies, coinciding with lower radioactivity.

·         The temperature of the coldest bodies would be determined by the transfer of temporal reference applied to thermal radiation.

·         Phenomena related to the history of our stellar system would distort the positional perception of objects, in relation to the timing of past disturbances.

All these observational biases would be at the origin of the big bang theory.

Figure 11 Author's illustration, scope of view

All of these observational biases would have led scientists to consider a zero time when matter was hot and originated from primordial nucleosynthesis. This interpretation, linked to the observation of large-scale variations, has led to the idea of a variation of the universe as a whole rather than arising from a local phenomenon.

The standard model considers a finite universe in time with a zero time of only 13.8 billion years. However, the evolution of large structures (evolution of galaxies, filamentary structures, and supermassive black holes) does not easily align with this assessment (...)

Cosmic Microwave Background

A radio signal is observed regardless of the direction of gaze, with a predominant and uniform background noise, onto which slight inhomogeneities are added, found along the axes of the large structures of the Universe.

1.      Interpretation according to the standard model

The cosmic microwave background is thought to be the remnant of matter creation throughout the universe, occurring at the end of "the dark age." Simulating its cooling over 13.8 billion years results in the observed temperature of all bodies, including the coldest ones. The inhomogeneities in the cosmic background are believed to be responsible for the formation of the large structures observed beyond our galaxy.

2.      Interpretation of the cyclic entropy cosmology model

The cosmic background radiation would be a translation of the temporal reference frame transfer from nucleosynthesis that essentially occurred in the outer regions of our galaxy about 13.8 billion years ago. The detected inhomogeneities would result from waves coming from large external structures. During measurements made by the COBE satellite in 1989, the inhomogeneities of the cosmic background were on the order of 1/100000. This indicates their very low relativity; they would be caused by the impact of external waves on the Milky Way.

Furthermore, the cosmic background would not be uniformly distributed across its entire surface, but rather in zones. It would be pertinent to verify if these zones correspond to the spiral arms of the galaxy. This could provide a clue suggesting a link between these disparities and the density fluctuations of spacetime within our galaxy.

It is worth noting that this cosmic background, as measured by satellites, is marked by the galactic plane; see below this cosmic background as it is received.

Figure 12 public.planck.fr/results/221-the-sky-seen-by-planck-in-color, December 10, 2013

It is common to find that the galactic plane is subtracted in order to account for a signal coming from the far reaches of the universe, which can lead to confusion.

This would be a baryosynthesis primarily present at the galaxy's edge, which would have been the source of this nearly homogeneous signal. The radiation emitted from the opposite edge to our position would have been absorbed by the galactic plane. The perception of this radiation would actually be linked to the transfer of temporal reference and our own baryosynthesis, which would explain why it appears so distant in spatial distance.

Space-Time

With the development of distant observations, one must take into account the propagation time of radiations and the geodesics of space-time. It seems that not all forms that this set can take have been explored.

Space-time is a concept invented by Einstein to geometrically represent the constraints related to the expression of physics. This allows for the linking of time and the influence of gravitational effects in a four-dimensional form. However, space-time would not exist in itself. It would merely represent the transient state between two expressions of physics. At a very brief moment, matter, energy, and all physical laws shape a transient space-time state, which in turn constrains the next expression of the laws of physics. Therefore, space-time and physics are intimately linked.

1.      Concept of space-time considered in the standard model

The cosmology of the standard model considers space-time as a continuous and homogeneous mesh. The Universe would be a finite whole in time and space. The deformations of this mesh are represented as follows :

2D graphical representation of a four-dimensional space-time :

Figure 13: Bing Images: on the left, a representation of spacetime curved by the presence of the Earth; on the right, a representation of spacetime curved by more massive bodies, neutron stars, and black holes.

1.      Space-time and associated concepts

In our hypothesis, the space-time of the Universe in general would be flat, somewhat like a sheet of paper, but warped, on which space-time bubbles (nebulae, galaxies, and intergalactic regions of galaxy clusters) would move. To take into account the presence of curved space-time bubbles, it would be necessary to add levels in the mesh, related to a notion of density variation. This would be equivalent to scalar fields. [9]

The flat regions of space-time would be areas where there would be truly nothing, neither matter nor energy. The energy density of the vacuum would be zero, the matter and antimatter balance would be "perfect," and the only events would be the propagation of waves emitted by the matter present in the galaxies. As a result, these flat parts of the universe would be truly transparent as they lack baryonic particles.

Radiations along the rotation axes of central black holes in galaxies would cause deformations of space-time, generating curved areas along their propagation axes, which would lead to the formation of new galaxies along these axes. It is noted that these deductions could explain the evolution of large structures without the time constraint associated with the big bang cosmology.

[9] A field is said to be scalar if it is associated with a physical quantity described by a numerical value, without direction.

a)      Birth of a Galaxy

Astronomers face the following challenge, according to the standard model: how could galaxies form in less than a billion years;  therefore, they search for black holes in these distant galaxies, which they call " outside black holes galaxies ", OBG. They have cautiously announced that they have detected some.

" UHZ1 could very well be the first OBG candidate, thus providing solid evidence of the formation of massive black holes by direct collapse in the early Universe."[10]

[10][2308.03837] radio emission from a black hole $z = 10.3 $ in UHZ1. Arxiv September 11, 2023

Figure 14 Supermassive black hole: a newborn quasar observed by Alma, Futura science 31 LAURENT SACCO March 2020

Generally, the collapse of a gas cloud leads to the formation of a star or a planet. The end of giant stars, which result in stellar black holes, would not allow for the observed degrees of concentration to be reached. This is why a phenomenon known as "direct collapse" into a black hole is considered (referred to as "Pristine direct collapse"). This hypothesis could explain the formation of black holes of such magnitude. To achieve this, increased gravitational forces are taken into account in modified theories of gravity[11]. This phenomenon, in English, "grow by super-Eddington accretion," indicates that it would be necessary to exceed the Eddington limit, which means in other words, to move beyond the standard model.

[11][2410.05891] Supermassive primordial black holes for GHZ9 and UHZ1 observed by the JWST. Arxiv October 8, 2024

Without dismissing these hypotheses, they remain very speculative and should not, in their current state, close the question of how it could be possible to have both a plasma universe at one point in time and a universe populated with galaxies organized around supermassive black holes just 300 to 400 million years later?

According to our hypothesis, the development and evolution of galaxies would result from the ejection of dark matter from older galaxies along the rotational axes of their central black holes. Given that black holes grow by accreting matter, the formation of a supermassive black hole would take much longer than currently considered.

Black holes would eject matter in a wave-like form, meaning this famous dark matter, and not directly in baryonic form. In no case would dark matter contribute to the increase of the mass of black holes, contrary to what has been assumed. Currently, dark matter is sought in the form of particles, and all astrophysical studies are influenced by this conception, with the explanations provided for observations being based on these concepts.

b)      History of Galaxies

Excerpt from a conference describing, among other things, the history of galaxies, below:

Figure 15 View of an observation field of the Universe. Conference at the Paris Astronomical Institute, The 5th Night of Astronomy at IAP, "Modeling the Universe on a Computer." June 17, 2023

During this conference, it was explained that the efficiency of star formation in stellar systems has dropped to 20% currently, whereas it would have been 100% at the level of the "primordial" galaxies observed by the JWST telescope.

Initially, a galaxy (spatiotemporal bubble) would expand (young galaxy), its energy would far exceed a certain threshold of its baryonic matter. This would cause a significant extension of the nebulae and the nucleosynthesis occurring within them. There would thus be an abundant production of young stars, which astronomers refer to as "blue galaxies" in the previous figure.

At a certain point, the amount of energy would approach this threshold, it would stagnate and produce fewer new stars; this is what astronomers refer to here as "red galaxies." These galaxies identified in red would be particularly situated along the filaments of dark matter, and they would likely be older.

However, this efficiency of stellar system formation is not quantitatively verified. The method used is described in the article "The Distant Universe and Stellar Formation" [12] by David Elbaz..

[12]The Distant Universe and Stellar Formation (herschel.fr)

Below are excerpts from this article :

" Astronomers are trying to count the stars that have formed " recently " within a galaxy…To do this, they use the most massive and youngest stars, which astronomers refer to as O and B type stars…They are extremely bright and hot. An O5 type star, which is 60 times more massive than the Sun, is almost 1 million times brighter than it. Due to their temperature, they emit most of their energy in the ultraviolet. Thus, to know how many stars are forming in a galaxy, one only needs to measure the brightness of that galaxy in the ultraviolet and know its distance. ".

Let's report the results of the study from this article :

The green, yellow, and red regions correspond to the evolution of the star formation rate in the universe from now until 4.7 billion years ago, at a redshift of 1. The colors distinguish their rate of brightness in the infrared. Based on these curves, it appears that there is a significant reduction in stellar efficiency between z=1 and now..

The question that should be asked is: "Could there be other explanations for these variations in brightness in the ultraviolet, that are not solely related to stellar formation efficiency?" This point should be verified. The summary of the study above has been worked on up to a Redshift z=1, which means when the universe would be 9 billion years old after the big bang. It is worth noting that 9 billion years for a universe that is 13.8 billion years old corresponds to 4.8 billion years in the past, shortly after the birth of the sun.

This variation in ultraviolet luminance could be linked to an interference between the radiation emitted by the sun in its early days and its current radiation. There would not be any real variation in stellar efficiency over time. Several causes of ultraviolet radiation variability need to be considered; locally, this would be related to the efficiency of star formation, but on larger time scales, it would also be marked by interference with our own emissions.

On the other hand, some observations would contradict a global evolution of stellar formation over time throughout the universe. Thus, Brice Louvet writes in his article titled "Stars: astronomers make an astonishing discovery in distant space," published on the Science Post website on November 6, 2024:

« Astronomers have made a surprising discovery about the galaxy NGC 1386, located 53 million light-years from Earth. Although it is an old galaxy, researchers have spotted an unexpected phenomenon: thousands of young stars that all formed nearly simultaneously just four million years ago. This observation challenges the traditional ideas of scientists who believed that star formation ceases as galaxies age. »

This notion of stellar formation efficiency, which would drastically decline throughout the universe, is also contradicted by the observation of intense star formation in dwarf galaxies close to the Milky Way. Emission nebulae (clouds forming young stars) are observed in our galactic environment, for example, the Crab Nebula.

Exchanges of matter and energy between galaxies.

Below are excerpts from lectures, on the left by Françoise Combes, on the right by Pierre Guillard, discussing the exchange of gas between galaxies.

Figure 16 : 1 : Conference IPR Françoise COMBES May 2, 2017, 2 : Why is galaxy formation inefficient? Pierre Guillard (IAP) April 4, 2023

Galaxies would exchange energy and matter. Throughout their evolution, they would create distortions in spacetime along the axes of rotation of their central black holes. This process would give rise to new galaxies along these axes and would be responsible for the filamentary structure of the universe.

The main difference between our hypothesis and classical interpretations lies in the consideration of wave-particle transformation responsible for the creation of matter. In the standard model, all matter comes from primordial nucleosynthesis, and the cold gases observed between galaxies are therefore indirectly the result of the tidal effects of supermassive black holes. In contrast, if we consider a wave-particle transformation extended beyond photons and electrons (i.e. at least up to neutrons), these cold gases could originate from the ejections of dark matter by black holes, matter that would transform into elementary particles along its journey.

c)      Aging Galaxy

Below is an illustration of a galaxy at the end of its life.

Figure 17 NGC 1277, image captured by the Hubble Space Telescope / NASA

Concerning NGC 1277, let's quote Wikipedia:

" NGC 1277 harbors a supermassive black hole at its center with a mass of about 17 billion solar masses, which is about 14% of the entire galaxy and 59% of the mass of the galactic bulge, while the typical value for a supermassive black hole is usually around 0.1% of the mass of the host galaxy's bulge"

" The galaxy NGC 1277 is said to be a remnant of the early Universe, because its stars formed over a period of about 100 million years, approximately 12 billion years ago when the Universe was less than 2 billion years old. After this period of intense star formation, at a rate about a thousand times higher than that of the Milky Way, the star birth process ceased, leaving NGC 1277 with stars whose metallicity indicates they are about 7 billion years older than the Sun "[13]

[13] https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC_1277, updated January 7, 2024 at 5:56 PM

This information about NGC 1277 indicates that:

·         No new stars have formed in this galaxy for 12 billion years.

·         Being located 5 billion light-years from the Milky Way, star formation in this galaxy would have had to occur at a rate 1000 times faster than in our own galaxy, shortly after the Big Bang.

·         The metallicity of these stars is particularly high.

·         NGC1277 would have a mass ten times lower than that of the Milky Way, but would harbor a black hole 4000 times larger. This ratio would be 14%, whereas it generally hovers around 0.2 to 1%.

Summary of this information:

This is believed to be a galaxy at the end of its life for several reasons:

The observed stars show high metallicity, which suggests a past abundance of supernovas. The halt in the production of new stars is thought to stem from the fact that the overall energy of this galaxy is below a certain threshold of its baryonic matter, causing it to shrink, with the outer disk of the galaxy diminishing, resulting in almost no nucleosynthesis of light elements occurring at the outskirts of the density regions.

The size of the supermassive black hole indicates a significant amount of accretion from past dead stars, suggesting its existence has certainly lasted longer than the so-called Big Bang. The dating of the stars as presented is debatable; how can one ascertain the age of stars individually at this distance, with certainty?

d)      Filamentary Structure of the Universe

The formation of filamentary structures of matter in the Universe is thought to be attributed to radiation along the rotation axis of black holes. According to this hypothesis, large galaxies would have created long and powerful filamentary zones of spacetime, where new galaxies would have formed. Smaller galaxies would have generated smaller filaments.

Furthermore, it has been observed that central black holes rotate, as do the filamentary structures, and these two phenomena may be related.

Figure 18: In this simulation, where each point is a galaxy, the universe appears to have a large-scale filamentary structure. (Https://irfu.cea.fr/Phocea/Vie_des_labos/Ast/ast.php?id_ast=3859, January 18, 2017)

e)      Flat Spacetime

Outside of galaxies and clusters of galaxies, isolated stars are not observed. This would indicate that a star or planet could not exist outside of galaxies, and very rarely in the intergalactic regions of galaxy clusters. The properties of the universe would still be present in these areas; however, these regions of the universe would be somewhat flat, in the absence of matter and energy. Nevertheless, big-bang cosmology accounts for the existence of a very low concentration of atoms resulting from "primordial" nucleosynthesis. To support this reasoning, let us cite:

« The current methods for estimating the mass of the Universe provide contradictory answers and call into question the Standard Model of cosmology. When we count the amount of normal matter in the Universe – the atoms that we are all made of – we find that more than half of what should be there today is missing, explains Ryan Shannon, a professor at Swinburne University of Technology in Australia"[14]

This is what astronomers are trying to observe through bright flashes known as "FRB [15]".

[14] Astronomers detect the farthest fast radio burst to date, press release, October 19, 2023.

[15] FRB: Fast Radio Burst. It refers to peaks of cosmic radio waves of very high intensity, ranging from milliseconds to 3 seconds.

Figure 19 This artist's view (not to scale) illustrates the trajectory of the fast radio burst FRB 20220610A, by Jean-Baptiste Jacquin. Published on October 24, 2023, at 7:00 PM.

Let's always cite excerpts from the same article, to shed light on the search for this missing matter.

"We believe that the missing matter is hidden in the space between galaxies, but it may be so hot and diffuse that it is impossible to see it with conventional techniques."

"Fast radio bursts detect this ionized matter. Even in an almost perfectly empty space, they can 'see' all the electrons, which allows us to measure the amount of matter between galaxies," explains Ryan Shannon ".

The article further clarifies:

"Although we still do not know what causes these huge bursts of energy, the article confirms that fast radio bursts are common events in the cosmos and that we will be able to use them to detect matter between galaxies and better understand the structure of the Universe," says Ryan Shannon.

It should be noted that the future tense is used, with great conviction indeed, but still in the conditional, probably for technical reasons. In any case, this matter has not been observed to date.

In our hypothesis, the wave-particle transformation would occur at the boundaries of density zones; there would be no production of light elements in the intergalactic voids. These voids would be devoid of dark matter flow; if our hypothesis is correct, then there will be no light matter in these voids, and it would consequently remain unobserved.

The propagation of a wave would correspond to "no changes in length," a necessary condition for the medium to remain homogeneous. An external localized vibration of a galaxy would induce, by propagation, an equivalent vibration on the incident galaxy. It is not necessary for there to be a medium for the propagation of a wave; it is sufficient for the medium to be homogeneous. This calls into question the principle of the notion of vacuum established by Einstein; the vacuum would not be the same depending on the density of dark matter, and the true vacuum would only exist in intergalactic spaces.

In this void, the absence of dark matter, along with the propagation of intersecting waves, could lead to particular geometric constraints. However, since this does not allow for a wave-particle transformation, how would these geometric stresses manifest, if not through the crystallization of waves in the form of peaks?

f)      Evolution of Black Holes

The formation of a stellar-origin black hole is well known: it suffices for the mass of the dying star to be between 3 and 5 times the mass of the Sun. However, to explain the formation of supermassive black holes, on the order of 12 billion solar masses, observed at a distance where the universe would only be 900 million years old, it is necessary to propose an explanation.

In our hypothesis, whether they are intermediate black holes or supermassive black holes, all would have grown by accretion of baryonic matter. Dark matter, which actually represents vacuum energy, would not be responsible for their growth. On the contrary, black holes would lose mass through the radiation of dark matter along their axis of rotation.

g)      Internal spacetime within galaxies

One could picture a galaxy as a bubble of spacetime surrounded by an outer envelope, which would constitute the boundary between the minimum possible energy and matter, and the intergalactic void. Beyond this surface, spacetime would be flat. At the center of the galaxy, another surface, the accretion disk of the black hole, would, on the other hand, be the limit beyond which baryonic matter would be trapped.

Figure 20 Author's Illustration

As one approaches the center of the galaxy, spacetime would condense. The increase in density would be inversely proportional to the radius of the object's position relative to the galactic center. Let's assume that the object is located at the outer edge of the galaxy, and consider that the density of spacetime in this area is equal to 1.

h)      Let's pose a formulation of the variation of space-time density :

Simplified calculation.

·         R symbolizes the global radius of the galaxy.

·         r is the radius where the object is located.

·         r' is the radius of the central black hole.

We would have : 

However, this variation in density would not be uniform; it would organize itself around wave-like structures in the shape of arms, characteristic of spiral galaxies. It can be observed that this hypothesis allows for a partial reproduction of the observed variations in gravity according to MOND theory.

i)      Link Between Magnetism and Spacetime in a Galaxy

At the center of black holes, spacetime would be so compressed that the forces of nuclear dislocation would dominate, transforming matter into energy and emitting gamma and X-rays. This ejected energy would form a cone of spacetime density distinct from the external environment.

The shape of the ejection would resemble the vortex of a siphon, as shown below :

Figure 21 « Unprecedented observation of the magnetism of Sgr A*, the central black hole of our galaxy » It's happening up there, Dec 4, 2015

Excerpts from the study :

" Near a black hole, the rotation of an accretion disk must generate magnetic fields that will ultimately be responsible for the emission of the disk and the appearance of plasma jets along the rotation axis of the black hole. "

"What Michael Johnson and his colleagues show is how magnetic field lines can transition from an ordered level to a disordered phase over a distance as short as six times the radius of the black hole. The disordered regions may indicate the existence of turbulence within the accretion disk, while the areas where the magnetic field is ordered could reveal the source of the black hole's jets of matter. This superb observation near the horizon of Sgr A* thus provides new strong clues about a magnetic origin of the jets of matter from black holes."

According to these observations, it appears that organized magnetic fields are present, oriented in a way that promotes the ejection of plasma and radiation along the rotational axis of the black hole. It is possible that some of the matter is converted into emitted energy, alongside baryonic matter accreting onto the black hole's disk. These variations in magnetic fields are likely connected to still poorly understood physical phenomena that challenge the notion of singularity in black holes, suggesting that they could grow or shrink.

Physical Hypothesis of the Origin of Space-Time Density

Firstly, in order for there to be a reduction in the size of objects while maintaining a similar organization of matter overall, the dimensional reduction would need to affect the vacuum at the level of the radii of the atoms themselves.

The size of atoms would thus be influenced by vacuum energy, in relation to the Casimir effect. As one approaches the center of the galaxy, the density of vacuum energy would increase. There is also a noted correlation with the magnetic fields observed in the galaxy.

The Casimir effect[16] is related to the variation of homogeneous space allowing the existence of matter in wave form. We quote the common explanation derived from Wikipedia:

"Quantum fluctuations of the vacuum are present in every quantum field theory. The Casimir effect is due to fluctuations in the electromagnetic field, described by quantum electrodynamics." 

[16] https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effet_Casimir. The Casimir effect is due to fluctuations in the electromagnetic field, as described by the theory of electrodynamics.

Figure 22: Casimir Forces on Parallel Plates

In other words, a relatively extensive homogeneous space allows for the propagation of long waves, which, when superimposed on shorter waves, generate a higher pressure compared to a more confined homogeneous space where only short waves can exist.

Thus, we observe pressure effects that are directly linked to the variation in the scale of homogeneous spaces. The galactic magnetic field lines represent discontinuities in the homogeneity of space, suggesting a natural correlation between them and variations in density zones. It seems logical that the galactic magnetic field lines follow these fluctuations, reflecting the local variations in the density of space-time.

The configuration of magnetic fields in a galaxy could reflect variations in the density of vacuum energy. According to this hypothesis, these dimensional variations would also affect the gravitational effect. Therefore, one would expect to observe young stars formed upstream of the spiral arms of galaxies, where the vacuum energy density would be low and the gravitational effect more intense.

Figure 23: Conference at the IAP, "Modeling the Universe on a Computer." Saturday, June 17, 2023. Selected excerpt from this conference.

Regarding the magnetic field in the galaxy, the concentric circles that are narrowing would testify to the influence of magnetic fields on the size of objects, which would correspond to a variation in the density of space-time. However, the standard model does not take into account a variation in atomic dimensions based on the local density of space-time. This analysis calls into question certain fundamental assumptions about the constancy of the physical properties of baryonic matter in the universe.

Observations show that field lines follow spiral arms. This is evidenced by an article from Futura Science titled "Magnetic fields shape spiral galaxies like the Milky Way."»[17].

« These observations support the density wave theory, which is the main theory that explains today the formation of spiral arms. This theory suggests that dust, gas, and stars are not fixed in the arms but can move through them like objects on a conveyor belt. The fact that magnetic fields align along the entire length of the arms indeed seems to show that gravitational forces compress not only matter but also magnetic fields.»

[17]Magnetic fields shape spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, Futura Science on December 11, 2019.

It is observed that the interpretations based on the standard model are very different from ours. This model assumes that gases and stars move independently of these spiral arms; the origin of this assumption in the standard model is due to the calculations of displacement velocities, which are extracted from the spectral differences observed on the stars and gases, considering only the Doppler effect. However, according to our hypothesis, these spectral differences are also influenced by the variation in vacuum energy density, in the form of a cone in the spiral arms.

According to the standard model, the solar system would be rotating faster than the spiral arms of the galaxy, even though it is currently located in the Orion arm. According to our hypothesis, it is not situated in this arm by chance, but is actually intimately linked to it, evolving in synchronization with it, rather than being located between two spiral arms. This approach suggests that the solar system is an integral part of the dynamics of the Orion arm, rather than simply being an object that moves independently of the galactic structure.

Figure 24 Nasa, ESA, The Hubble Heritage. NGC 1068. Futura-science, le 11 déc. 2019

Magnetic fields and variations in space-time density would be related. This notion is derived from studies where the Casimir force is modeled by magnetic fields, with the field lines creating a discontinuity, they would somewhat replace the metallic plates. As a result, one would need to take into account variations in the physical properties induced by these densities, from one region of the universe to another.

If the solar system followed a downward trajectory relative to the overall size of the galaxy, and moved within a funnel-shaped cone, it would mean that the radius of the galaxy, in relation to the outer radius, would decrease over time. Similarly, the space within this cone would also shrink. These combined phenomena would contribute to the increase in the density of the space-time that surrounds us.

Cross-section of a spiral galaxy:

Figure 25: Conference excerpt, Institute of Astrophysics of Paris, April 2023

It is observed that the light emitted by stars located on the outskirts of galaxies tends to shift towards blue, while that of stars close to the center shifts more towards orange. According to standard theory, this phenomenon is related to the evolution of stars. This idea is based on the concept of the main sequence, where it is noted that stars follow a downward trajectory within this framework of interpretation. Indeed, the main sequence suggests that stars begin their lives by emitting bluer light, which is a sign of high energy. Over time, they lose energy and mass, leading them to emit more orange light.

However, the structure of a spiral galaxy like the Milky Way includes intermediate-mass black holes, which challenge scenarios of the standard model. Although scientists contemplate a specific role for central black holes, as well as a particular evolution that has allowed them to reach their current size in 13.8 billion years, they do not have clear explanations regarding the formation and development of intermediate-mass black holes.

Let's cite a source confirming the existence of these medium black holes[18] :

« The universe is rich with black holes, featuring supermassive heavyweight ones nestled at the cores of galaxies, or lightweights formed from the collapse of a star, but the search for a "medium weight" has thus far been unsuccessful. Astronomers claimed on July 10, 2024, to have found the best evidence of such a missing link in Omega Centauri, the largest star cluster in the Milky Way, about 18,000 light-years from Earth. »

In our hypothesis, stellar systems would generally depend on the spiral to which they belong, rotating with it around the galactic center. The remaining matter at the end of a stellar system's life that has an intermediate position would rather head towards these medium black holes. The variation in large-scale radiation from stars would also be conditioned by the density of spacetime, which itself varies on large scales.

Let's take a text from ChatGPT, questioning this hypothesis and the interpretation of observations:

" Your idea, that matter and newly formed gases move and behave according to density waves in the galaxy, opens an interesting perspective. Indeed, in such a model, the observed spectral shift would not be limited to simple radial velocities, but would also be a response to the density variation within the wave itself, influencing light in a complex and localized manner. This could add a new layer of understanding to the phenomena observed in spiral galaxies."

[18] Astronomers finally detect a "medium-weight" black hole - Sciences et Avenir on 11/07/2024

j)      Spacetime in the Solar System

Below is an artist's image from National Geographic magazine, inspired by an article in " The Astronomical Journal ", " EVIDENCE FOR A DISTANT GIANT PLANET IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM " co-authored by Konstantin Batygin and Michael E. Brown, published on January 20, 2016.

Figure 27 View of distant objects in the solar system, beyond the eight known planets, image extracted from a National Geographic article by Nadia Drake[19]

[19] https://www.nationalgeographic.fr/espace/des-scientifiques-ont-la-preuve-dune-neuvieme-planete-dans-le-systeme-solaire.

If spacetime exhibits large-scale density variations, it is reasonable to assume that this phenomenon also manifests at smaller scales, although in a less pronounced manner. It would be the consideration of this phenomenon that is lacking in the equations of the Schwarzschild metric, a solution to Einstein's equations, used for calculating trajectories in stellar systems..

Assuming that the density of space-time varies with gravitational effects for all bodies, including near the sun, it would vary slightly, resulting in perturbations in the trajectories of planets and comets. Their relative mass would slightly decrease as the bodies approach the sun, and vice versa. This phenomenon would lead to an increase in the elliptical portion of their trajectory over time.

The increase of the elliptical component of trajectories could lead, for each dipole of interacting bodies, to a shift of the center of gravitational effect outward from the initial system. These "moving centers of gravity" could combine in such a way that they form a filamentary network of higher density dark matter. This network could create a ring surrounding the star at the center of the stellar system. A ring of dark matter could be responsible for the gravitational trace of the so-called planet nine.

If this hypothesis were proven correct, then our distant observations could also be influenced by this gravitational network. Our observations would undergo an apparent distortion of the positions and velocities of numerous galaxies located within 5 billion light-years. This could explain the observation known as "LANIAKEA," which in this case would not be a real structure, but rather the result of observational biases related to the history of the solar system.

Regarding the existence of a ninth planet, as stated in an article written by Chloé Rosier on August 8, 2022.

"Astronomers are challenging the Planet 9 theory, which would account for certain objects in our solar system," and further down, concerning the existence of the ninth planet, (...)

"This hypothesis was put forward to attempt to explain the strange movements of extreme trans-Neptunian objects." [20].

[20] https://www.rtbf.be/article/et-si-la-planete-9-n-existait-pas-11044623

There are other examples where the Schwarzschild equations encounter difficulties in modeling the evolution of stellar systems. Current simulations based on these equations fail to reproduce certain phenomena and stellar formations.

Let us mention one of them, as reported in an article written by Fabrice Nicot on November 30, 2023,

" LHS3154b, the planet that should not exist "[21], describes the difficulty of tracing a history of its organization, based on current equations. Here are some excerpts :

" The discovery of an exoplanet 13 times the mass of Earth around a red dwarf star baffles researchers. Regardless of the scenario considered, they cannot explain how such a massive planet could have formed in the vicinity of such a star. ".

"To attempt to describe the birth of the improbable planet, researchers ran simulations, over 300 in total, with different configurations of protoplanetary disks as observed around other red dwarf stars. None have produced a planet with more than 10 solar masses and a period of less than 10 days, as stated in the article from Science. The mystery remains..."

This example highlights the limitations of current equations, likely due to the lack of consideration of variations in gravitational effects and associated perturbation effects. Furthermore, outside the cosmological framework of the Big Bang, the evolutionary timescales of systems can be considerably longer, especially for stars such as red dwarfs.

[21] https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/espace/univers/lhs3154b-la-planete-qui-ne-devrait-pas-exister_175381

      Fundamental Physical Implications

1.      Effects Related to Variations in Dark Matter Density:

E=mc²

This relationship would remain valid on a local scale, but relativistic effects would become significant at very large distances. Indeed, the speed of light propagates in a spacetime where density D varies, and mass also changes under the influence of this variation, applying the uncertainty principle:

1)      For an observer located in an area of intermediate density, the gravitational fields emitted in less dense spacetime regions at the edges of a galaxy, the perception of the total mass and energy emanating from these external areas would be higher. The reverse phenomenon would be true for masses and energies coming from the galactic center.

Our idea is that when the density of spacetime (denoted by D in the equation) decreases, the geometric space occupied increases, leading to a more pronounced gravitational effect.

We obtain the following formula (D1 being the density in an outer area of the galaxy, D2 being for example our area, closer to the center):

Note: Coming from a low-density area, such as the outskirts of a galaxy, the perceived mass for an intermediate zone like ours becomes greater, for the same atoms and molecules (since D2 would be numerically greater than D1). This would correspond to the observations referred to as dark matter. A large part of the missing masses, often attributed to independent dark matter, could be explained by this relationship. It is noted that the regions of the universe thought to contain dark matter are also populated by stars that predominantly emit in the blue, whereas at the center of galaxies, stars tend to emit more in the orange.

To account for the observations, a relatively larger mass of objects at the periphery could explain their faster rotation. Thus, the movements of celestial bodies could be interpreted without invoking dark matter exerting its own gravitational effect. Rather, it would be ordinary matter that would seem to have a variable mass, depending on the energy density of the vacuum, which would evolve on a large scale.

2)      We suggest that if the density of spacetime varies, the speed at which light waves propagate is affected. In this case, the wave can either bypass the obstacle, as in optics when it traverses different media, or penetrate into a denser medium, resulting in a change in the angle of diffusion. Thus, the speed of light would vary: it would decrease towards the center of the galaxy and increase as one moves closer to its periphery. In a flat spacetime, such as intergalactic space, the speed of light would be equivalent to that measured at the outer surface of the galaxy. It is noted that reasoning about a variation in the speed of light in a EUCLIDEAN space is equivalent to considering a fixed speed of light in a curved space, as in general relativity. Saying that time slows down in a gravitational well, a curved space (which elongates distances with a fixed speed), is akin to considering a speed of light that slows down in a non-curved space, and one finds here also a time that slows down, as time is linked to the wave-like exchanges between particles. Ultimately, we return to the use of calculations made with general relativity, but taking into account differently the physical effects related to the variations of what is called spacetime.

3)      The passage of time would be influenced by the density of space-time: it would undoubtedly flow "relatively" more slowly when D increases, due to the slowing of waves caused by the increase in the vacuum energy density. However, the reduction of atomic dimensions would have the opposite effect on the evolution of nuclei. These contradictory effects would make prediction very difficult. Currently, variations in the passage of time would indicate that the slowing effect would be predominant, in line with general relativity calculations. However, the lack of data, particularly concerning the passage of time in geostationary satellites, does not allow us to dismiss our hypothesis of combined effects..

Author's Note :

This cosmology suggests that everything varies according to the density of space-time: the mass parameter used for trajectory calculations, energy (related to mass), the speed of light, time, as well as other phenomena such as radioactivity, the fine-structure constant (alpha, related to atomic dimensions), and many other parameters. Therefore, apart from general trends, it is not possible to establish precise equations at this time, as this issue remains too complex at this stage.

1.      Baryogenesis

The density of spacetime would cause a variation in atomic size. From a physical standpoint, this variation would be related to the energy density of the vacuum within the galaxy. At the periphery of the galaxy, this density would be low. If the total energy of the galaxy exceeds a certain threshold of the space occupied by matter, then this energy would spread into intergalactic space. With the expansion of this sphere, it would need to occupy an increasingly vast space. However, since energy levels are finite, just like the associated equivalent matter, this energy could not take certain intermediate values. Therefore, it would transform in stages into equivalent light matter. There would be a qualitative transformation of vacuum energy into baryonic matter. Starting from a considerable volume and surface area, the matter thus formed would vibrate at high intensity, in other words, would be extremely hot.[22]

A recent observation corroborates the hypothesis described above:

Excerpt from an article on technoscience.net, written by Adrien on December 21, 2024:

« The disk of the Milky Way is surrounded by a gaseous envelope of unimaginable temperature. This recent discovery intrigues researchers, who are seeking to understand the mechanisms behind this extreme heat, in the order of several million degrees. »[23]

Starting from geometric spaces close to spherical arcs, the energy that would concentrate into particles would transform with a gyroscopic effect, causing them to rotate on themselves; this phenomenon would be the origin of particle spin. From an observational point of view, particles vibrating at very high intensity during this transformation would emit blackbody radiation, a phenomenon actually observed in nebulae.

Following the same logic, a vacuum energy transforming into particles from a geometrically more concentrated area should produce cooler particles, which is indeed observed in certain regions. This theory could thus explain the presence of cold gases along the rotation axis of black holes.

If this hypothesis proves to be correct, "baryogenesis" could be interpreted as a wave-particle transformation, challenging the current principle of "wave-particle duality." These transformations, influenced by geometric factors, could occur in many situations.

The steps leading to the synthesis of elements heavier than hydrogen, such as heavy hydrogen, helium, and lithium, still need to be clarified. However, these processes would take place under conditions where temperatures are higher than those of the standard model, but with diffuse matter not necessarily subjected to compression. The hypothesis of the standard model is supported by analogy to laboratory experiments, where blackbody radiation is obtained with hot and compressed matter. However, the CMB radiation, according to our hypothesis, comes from the very first energy transformation of the vacuum - Baryon (even if this first baryon could be Higgs bosons); this baryogenesis corresponds to a specific physical phenomenon, at the edge of the outer bubble of vacuum energy of galaxies, and this phenomenon would therefore be extremely homogeneous. It is worth noting that the wavelength currently received would stem from the limit of the range of vision and would be the result of the interference between our very first emitted radiation and the distant radiation that reaches us. Nevertheless, the homogeneity of this received signal would be linked to our zone of the universe; we must admit that some averaging occurs.

[22]NDA: This concept of wave-particle transformation is partly based on the ideas of Hegel's dialectic, whereby a body, subjected to constraints, ultimately undergoes a qualitative transformation.

[23]https://www.techno-science.net/actualite/enveloppe-temperature-inimaginable-entoure-notre-galaxie-vient-elle-N26208.html

3.      The Transfer of Temporal Reference Frame Applied to Observations

Regarding observations, it has been verified that time would be affected when observing events from a distant past. Excerpt of study below :

"Researchers used observations of stars that end their lives in explosions, supernovae, to demonstrate that time seemed to flow twice as slowly when the Universe was half its current age, which is 13.8 billion years. The new study uses quasars – a source of quasi-stellar radiation – which are incomparably brighter, to look back to a billion years after the birth of the Universe. Time appears to flow five times more slowly there, according to the study. "[24].

[24] In the early days of the Universe, time appears to flow five times more slowly. Geo, on 07/09/2023 at 7:38 AM.

This time shift is interpreted as "evidence" in correlation with redshift; these two measurements would confirm an expansion of the universe. Indeed, if the redshift is impacted by the transfer of temporal reference frame, in other words, interference, then this same explanation would affect both the redshift and a shift in the reception of periodic events. If this hypothesis proves to be correct, and if the passage of time for an observer is influenced by variations in the atomic space they occupy over time, it would mean that the observer would not perceive any potential variations in the speed of light over time for themselves.

4.      Diffraction of Time and

Electromagnetic Signals

The ability to observe phenomena near the central black hole could also be affected by variations in the flow of time within the Galaxy. If time flows differently at the center than at our position, our observations would be constrained by the bandwidth of our scanning speed, which would reduce the number of perceived images of events. However, since frequencies and the speed of light are linked, our spectroscopic observation references would remain unchanged.

If this hypothesis proves to be correct, it becomes plausible that some information is lost near a black hole. Furthermore, if a light beam traverses multiple zones of acceleration and deceleration in time, successive samplings could disrupt or even interrupt the transmission of light information.

Let us cite an observation regarding Sagittarius, the central black hole of the Milky Way:

"By scrutinizing the surroundings of the black hole Sagittarius A* with the IXPE satellite, astronomers have discovered traces of intense activity in the X-ray domain, dating back about 200 years. This observation sheds new light on this supermassive celestial body now dormant. Hidden at the heart of the Milky Way, 25,000 light-years from Earth, the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*) had a memorable feast about 200 years ago."[25]

According to the study, a resurgence of activity occurred about 200 years ago, while for most of the time, the black hole may have been absorbing very little matter. And could this be related to our observational capabilities? Many objects emit radio waves with inexplicable periodicities. This hypothesis, through successive samplings, could provide a clue to understanding these periodicity phenomena.

[25]https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/espace/voie-lactee/trou-noir-supermassif-sagittarius-a-des-scientifiques-retrouvent-l-echo-d-un-festin-cosmique-datant-de-200-ans_172066.

Galaxie « NUBE » :

This is about a galaxy from which we would hardly perceive any visible light.

The IAC Stripe 82 Legacy project focuses on the study of a narrow strip along the celestial equator. It would be relevant to check if this area is also close to the galactic plane. There could be a connection between its "quasi-dark" nature and its position along the celestial equator.

"By analyzing deep optical images from the IAC Stripe 82 Legacy project, a team of astronomers stumbled upon a new quasi-dark galaxy by chance. The object, nicknamed "Nube," indeed shows very low surface brightness even though it is as massive as the Small Magellanic Cloud. ".

Figure 28 Astronomers discover a new "quasi-dark" galaxy. Sciencepost, October 26, 2023, 4:04 PM

There would thus be a relationship between variations in spacetime density and the perception of radiation. Furthermore, some objects emit radio signals with time intervals that current physics cannot explain. These periods, on the order of several minutes, do not correspond to any known physical phenomenon. The hypothesis that variations in spacetime density influence the propagation of light waves could provide an explanation for these anomalies. Additionally, if light experiences phases of slowing down and speeding up, this could also lead to limited observation windows.

The Mystery of the Three Disappeared Stars

Below are the observation records from the same area of the universe, taken less than an hour apart

Figure 29 photographic images from 1952. © PALOMAR OBSERVATORY/SOLANO, ET AL, futura-sciences.com/sciences/actualites/astronomie

"In 1952, at the Palomar Observatory, three stars appeared simultaneously in the same region of the sky before disappearing in less than an hour."

If this phenomenon is not related to radioactive dust, as has been suggested, it could be attributed to irregularities in the propagation of light. Although this observation may seem anecdotal, many other similar observations have been reported, including disappearances of stars or, conversely, unexplained appearances.

Variation of Fundamental Constants

The basis of this cosmology implies a dimensional variation at the atomic level, under the influence of the pressure of vacuum energy, with variable density within the galaxy. This density would not necessarily be zero, although very low, between nearby galaxies (within a cluster). This hypothesis, involving atomic dimensional variation, induces many changes in the physical behavior of matter.

However, certain observations might find an explanation through this phenomenon.

·         Stability of the neutron and nucleosynthesis model. With strong atomic dimensions, weak nuclear forces would be negligible at the galaxy's edge, allowing for a longer neutron lifespan (since the pressure on the atomic nucleus would be less intense).

·         Greater energy during nucleosynthesis would allow for the synthesis of lithium.

·         The increase in matter decay, confirmed by the emission of neutrinos, near the central black hole would be compatible with so-called weak nuclear forces that would be higher at the galactic center.

·         The statistical model of radioactive decay of nuclei. This law follows a non-Gaussian distribution over time. More specifically, the law of nuclear decay follows the following curve:

Figure 30 https://fr.wikibooks.org/wiki/Le_noyau_atomique/La_loi_de_désintégration_radioactive

This point seems compatible with an external influence, which would be a pressure from vacuum energy, leading to this group behavior. The less effective disintegration of nuclei occurs, the longer the lifespan of those remaining is extended. How can we explain this phenomenon if not by the influence of an external pressure, which would evolve with the density of the remaining unstable atoms ?

·         Case of the "constant" of gravitation G

If the density of space-time varies, then the value of G also varies accordingly, because the units for calculating G consist of cubic meters per square seconds.

Black Holes

First, let's take a look at stellar black holes, which are formed from dead stars with a mass approximately five times that of the sun. These black holes, made of dense matter, typically rotate and prevent any escape of photons. When they combine, they can give rise to intermediate black holes, similar to those found in the galaxy. They would likely be responsible for increased spacetime density.

At the galactic center, supermassive black holes are commonly observed, which are associated with an extreme increase in spacetime density. In the accretion disk, the "weak" nuclear forces would be predominant and would dislocate a large amount of matter. The remaining matter would cross the disk and accumulate.

Figure 31 Artistic illustration "Neutrinos from the center of the Milky Way detected for the first time" Source: Radio-Canada.ca, July 12, 2023

The presence of neutrinos (in blue) aligns with the previous observation, which reveals the existence of abundant matter decays at the galactic center.

At the center of the black hole, rotating on itself, matter could not occupy a space smaller than a certain volume. There would be a qualitative transformation of matter into energy radiated along the axis of rotation of the black hole. This energy would be responsible for currents of vacuum energy, which carve space-time along the axis of rotation. This would lead to significant variations in vacuum energy density and baryogenesis along this axis.

Magnetic fields can be observed in a radial form escaping perpendicularly from the surface of the accretion disk thanks to the electronic devices of satellites. There is a new study that "gives hair to black holes." This point is not analyzed here; there may be points of convergence with some of our hypotheses.

Dark Matter

1.      Interpretation According to the Standard Model

Dark matter exists because we observe a gravitational trace of matter. However, it would only interact with visible matter through gravity. The most satisfying simulations of matter take into account cold matter.

2.      Interpretation According to the Cyclic Entropy Model

The concept of dark matter in the standard model serves to explain a gravitational trace that does not correspond to the sum of the calculated masses emerging from the matter detected by the trace of electromagnetic radiation. Observations reveal an additional gravitational trace primarily in areas referred to as low density, meaning at the edges of galaxies or in intermediate zones between nearby galaxies, for example, in galaxy clusters. In our hypothesis, this would be the relativity of perceived mass; any matter existing in a lower space-time density than ours would be perceived as having a greater mass, via the relationship described earlier.

Moreover, if we consider an "average" gravity that would take a shape akin to "a wine glass" within the galaxy, we can assume that there would be limiting escape velocities according to Mendeleev's table. It is possible that at a certain distance from the galactic center, there are almost no elements heavier than number 7 (lithium) in this table, therefore there would be less or no iron.

A recent observation noted that at the galactic center the gravity of stellar systems would be lesser, which would confirm our hypothesis of mass variation.

Let us observe where these hypotheses of dark matter in the standard model lead through one of its most recent studies. This study considers the presence of dark matter with a particular disposition to explain the apparent shape of the Milky Way:

Figure 32 Visualization of the apparent lateral deformation. Source: Techno-Science.net news/dark-matter-considerably-deforms-our-galaxy, on 10/04/2023

This study assumes that the shape of this so-called dark matter would be a consequence of a prior shock of the Milky Way. Yet, the deformation appears quite symmetrical.

In our hypothesis, this deformation would not be real; it would be a distortion of optical perception relative to density variations and the position of the solar system, which is not located exactly in the galactic plane.

Taking all these elements into account, it seems unlikely that there exists corpuscular matter, known as dark matter, which exists without emitting electromagnetic radiation and which manifests only through a gravitational phenomenon, as envisioned in the standard model.

On the other hand, observations would indicate that these dark matter zones could intersect practically without collisions or gravitational interactions; we observe emissions of X-rays or superheated gases at the interception. How can we conceive of gravity acting only on ordinary matter, and how can we understand the absence of collisions for granular matter? In fact, these observations confirm our hypothesis that this matter is strictly wave-like, and the emission of X-rays and the presence of superheated gases would correspond to baryogenesis.

Gravity

One of the challenges in interpreting observations is finding a balance between the laws of gravity and the distribution of stellar systems within galaxies.

1.      MOND Model

The MOND theory, Modified Newtonian Dynamics, proposed by Milgrom in 1983, introduces a modified law of gravity that allows for a global reproduction of the rotations of stellar systems in galaxies, by altering Newton's law. This modification involves a potential in 1/r. It is interesting to note that this parameter precisely corresponds to the concept of variable spacetime density in 1/r. The MOND theory enables approximate predictions of these stellar velocity distributions, considered as an alternative to the dark matter theory in the context of galaxies. This is presented below:

Figure 33 Rotation speed of stars in the spiral galaxy NGC 6946 as a function of their distance (in Mpc). Source: Futura-science.com on 10/05/2012

If this spacetime density changes the expression of the gravitational effect, then there is no paradox of variable gravity related to large distances; the calculation method for the gravitational effect would remain the same, with only the perceived notion of mass changing. A law in 1/r2 would generally remain correct, but with a relative mass that varies according to the spacetime density, meaning that generally, it would also vary with r.

The distribution of rotation speeds of stars shows that there is an inverse variation of speed in relation to the density of dark matter, as considered in our cosmology, meaning that the lower the dark matter density, the greater the gravitational effect. However, it would not be dark matter exerting a direct gravitational effect.

1.      Gravitational Effect

The geometric space would be infinite in dimension, meaning it cannot be divided; there would always exist a value lower than a defined infinitely small quantity. Matter and energy, on the other hand, would be finite (they could only take on determined states). When an exchange occurs between particles, the reference frame of the receiver accounts for the reference frame of the emitter, taking into consideration a finite geometric multiple, which would induce a micro-spatial shift due to the geometric infinity in relation to the finiteness of matter. This micro-shift would lead to the receiver moving closer to the geometric difference that could not be accounted for, with the information being crossed; the same phenomenon would simultaneously affect the emitter, preventing any possibility of absolute phase alignment between the entire emitter-receiver setup. These shifts would cause a physical rapprochement of the interacting matter; moreover, the shrinking of geometric distance would induce a proportional acceleration of the passage of time in the universe. However, since physics unfolds in a certain way always at the same speed for matter and energy, we would experience a slip. This temporal slip and the gravitational effect would be interconnected.

As it concerns inter-particle exchanges, it would always act to bring them closer together, which is why there would be no sign of gravitational effect. If we consider not time but spatial dimension, all particles are drawn closer due to these exchanges. This would be the basis for the notion of a gravitational field, which is the integration of a multitude of these displacements.

This is why what is called mass would actually be a concept related to the geometrical space occupied and to the exchanges between particles or interatomic interactions. As a result, given that the occupied space is not the same when taking into account a sum of independent particles versus those organized into atoms, we end up with a different gravitational effect, which is stronger, with particles in the form of atoms than when they are independent. This would explain the lack of correspondence between "quantum" gravity, which describes the mass of particles, and general relativity, which describes mass on a large scale.

This concept would align with the hypothesis of greater atomic dimensional variation at the galaxy's edge, as it would correlate with a greater expression of gravity. Similarly, at the galactic center, we expect that the gravitational effect would be reduced compared to our own position. Observations support this idea, although their low mass is sometimes linked to other scenarios in the standard model (collisions between stars).

Extragalactic Events

1.      Introduction

Based on an alternative cosmology to the big bang, which is briefly described here, possible interpretations arise regarding the violent events of the universe. This chapter is speculative, but it stems from the hypotheses considered and presents a certain interest, as it shows that this cosmology allows for different explanations for observations than those derived from the standard model.

2.      Fast Radio Bursts (FRB)

Here is a recent observation of FRB:

"Fast radio bursts (FRB) are extremely short, high-energy electromagnetic pulses, typically of extragalactic origin. Their duration ranges from a millisecond to three seconds, releasing as much energy as the Sun does in one day."[26]

These phenomena are difficult to interpret. Most scenarios are attributed to events involving collisions of black holes, the only known objects capable of generating such energy bursts. These scenarios revolve around the "outburst" phenomenon of black holes, which can be seen as a sort of rebalancing of a black hole after merging with another black hole or a neutron star. The energies released exceed the famous Eddington limit.

Regarding Figure 10, the associated article states:

"It is hard to imagine that a radio wave explosion lasting a few milliseconds releases as much energy as the Sun emits in thirty years."

And

"FRB 20220610A, as it is called, originates from a small group of merging galaxies located 8 billion light-years away. "

The power of the emission, combined with its extremely short duration, could suggest the transformation of a large amount of matter into radiated energy. For such intensity to reach our position, it would be necessary for us to be aligned with the rotation axis of the emitting black hole. This leads to a rethinking of the classical conception of black holes, in which no energy could escape.

[26] Techno-Science.net " Astronomers detect inexplicable radio bursts ". The 28/10/2023

3.      Fast Blue Optical Transients (FBOT)

Let's mention a recent observation of FBOT: AT2023FHN

One observation seems to corroborate a crucial aspect of the hypotheses. It is assumed that the creation of new matter could occur at the periphery of galaxies, where the curved space, representing the outer surface of the galaxy, interacts with the flat spacetime of the intergalactic universe. It would be relevant to search for signs of this interface.

We would thus have observational traces of shocks on these surfaces, let's mention the FBOT.

Figure 34 image from the Hubble telescope of the bright blue optical transient (LFBOT) AT2023FHN, HUBBLESITE, October 5, 2023.

This phenomenon, intense in nature, would have lasted only a few minutes of terrestrial observation, with an energy intensity far greater than that of supernovae, which have a much longer duration.

The area where this LFBOT occurred is significant. I quote:

"This one is very special since it occurred between two galaxies, about 50,000 light-years from one and 15,000 light-years from the other."[27]

This would mean that in the deep space located between two galaxies, a phenomenon capable of generating a strong release of energy occurred.

The scenarios envisioned involve either black holes or neutron stars, but always two objects of compact matter. However, it is conceivable that these phenomena are related to the existence of these outer surfaces.

During the collision between two curved space-time bubbles, their interaction would generate turbulence, fostering the simultaneous creation of matter and antimatter in the same region of space. The observed phenomenon would result from the recombination of this matter and antimatter, releasing a considerable amount of energy. One could envision that, once the curved spaces merged, the process would cease. However, the disturbances induced by the initial shock would propagate, favoring the formation of nebulae or even new galaxies.

[27] Phonandroid.com, " There was a massive explosion in space, but we don't know why ". By Thomas Povéda On 10/09/2023. Article inspired by arXiv:2307.01771v2, October 3, 2023

FIGURE 35 Orion Nebula, David Duarte Astrophotography

These LFBOT could be seen as confirmation of the existence of these outer surfaces, which align with the rest of the theory. The Orion Nebula reflects this phenomenon well; once the shock passes, the volumes of these curved spaces appear.

4.      GRB230307A.[28]

"Detected for the first time by NASA's Fermi space telescope on March 7, 2023, GRB 230307A is the brightest burst ever observed in over 50 years: about 1,000 times brighter than a typical gamma-ray burst observed by Fermi. ".

"This image from the NIR Cam (Near-Infrared Camera) of NASA's James Webb Space Telescope highlights gamma-ray burst (GRB) 230307A and its associated kilonova, as well as its ancient galaxy of origin. The neutron stars were likely expelled from their original galaxy and traveled a distance of about 120,000 light-years, roughly the diameter of the Milky Way, before merging several hundred million years later to form the GRB230307A burst. "

The scenarios of the standard model aimed at explaining these phenomena rely on the interaction of two massive objects (neutron stars or black holes), as this model does not consider the existence of surfaces external to galaxies.

There could be a link between baryonic matter and the surrounding dark matter. If baryonic matter were violently ejected into a region devoid of dark matter, it would then come into contact with its corresponding antimatter. The recombination of matter and antimatter would result in a massive release of energy.

[28]Phonandroid.com, " There was an immense explosion in space, but we don't know why ". By Thomas Povéda on 10/09/2023. Article inspired by arXiv:2307.01771v2, October 3, 2023.

Figure 36 © NASA, ESA, CSA, A. Levan (Radboud University) November 24, 2023

The hypotheses above take into account the spectrometric analysis that was conducted, as detailed below:

Figure 37 © NASA, ESA, CSA, Joseph Olmsted (STScI)39 November 24, 2023

"This graphical presentation compares the spectral data from the kilonova of GRB230307A observed by the James Webb Space Telescope with a model representing this type of phenomenon. The data and the model show a distinct peak in the wavelength range associated with tellurium (the shaded area in red). The detection of tellurium, which is rarer than platinum on Earth, signifies a major advancement in our understanding of these explosive phenomena."[29]

This GRB may be due to the interaction between a neutron star, propelled out of a galaxy, and the outer surface. This star could be facing a wave of antimatter, a dynamic consequence of the flat spacetime in which it would be rushing. This release of energy would generate a long-term distortion of spacetime.

[29] Paris Observatory.psl.eu First detection of a heavy element with 52 protons in a star merger. Published on November 13, 2023

5.      Ultra High Energy Particle.

A particle with considerable energy was detected in 2021 using a network of detectors. It has been named Amaterasu. Here are excerpts from the article written by Fabrice Nicot, on November 21, 2023, published in Science and the Future.

" A particle carrying a significant amount of energy was detected by the Telescope Array network in 2021. Its origin is all the more mysterious as it appears to come from a region of the Universe devoid of galaxies. "[30]

" According to researchers from Osaka University (Japan), the energy of this cosmic ray is 244.1018 eV. This represents 40 joules, roughly half the kinetic energy of a tennis ball traveling at 200 km/h, but carried by a single particle, most likely a proton according to the researchers. ".

A particle with such energy, originating from a galaxy-free zone, could have formed through accumulation. If it existed in wave form within this flat spacetime, it could not have become baryonic. By analogy with rogue waves, it would have accumulated wave energy before transforming into a neutron upon entering a galactic zone, suggesting a connection between energy accumulation and flat spacetime.

[30] An ultra-high-energy particle of unknown origin has been detected - Sciences et Avenir.

Rogue wave: The interference of two waves. When they are in phase, the two waves create constructive interference, producing a wave of greater amplitude.

Figure 38 As it enters the atmosphere, the particle triggers chain reactions detected by the Telescope Array in the United States.

Balance and Conservation of Matter and Energy

Neutrinos appear to play a role in the conservation of energy. In fact, one interaction suggests that they would return their energy, as demonstrated by the following observation.[31]

"Under normal 'classical' conditions, neutrinos will not interact with photons," explains Ishikawa. "However, we have revealed how neutrinos and photons can be made to interact in uniform magnetic fields on an extremely large scale – as large as 10 km – found in the form of a matter known as plasma, which occurs around stars."

« Electroweak Hall effect and its implications : The interaction described by researchers involves a theoretical phenomenon called the electroweak Hall effect. This is an interaction of electricity and magnetism under extreme conditions where two of the fundamental forces of nature – the electromagnetic and weak forces – merge to form the electroweak force.

« In addition to their contribution to our understanding of fundamental physics, our work may also help explain what is known as the solar corona heating puzzle »

« This is a long-standing mystery regarding the mechanism by which the sun's outermost atmosphere – its corona – is at a much higher temperature than the surface of the sun. Our work shows that the interaction between neutrinos and photons releases energy that heats the solar corona. ».

According to this study, neutrinos would play a role that raises the crown of the sun to a much higher temperature than its surface, thus releasing energy. This point could act as a regulatory factor; the more neutrinos there are, which generally stem from nuclear decay, the more energy would be released in stars, leading to more baryogenesis at the edge of galaxies.

However, in the hypothesis of a globally stable universe, this could be related to the properties of physics, which would evolve between low-density areas, precipitating towards high-density areas, and ultimately the transformation of matter into energy, which would give rise to new low-density regions. Trapped between these two extreme states of low and high density, the universe would be maintained at a certain excess of matter and energy, for a given occupied space.

[31]https://issues.fr/interactions-neutrino-photons-unlocking-the-secrets-of-particle-physics/

Some Personal Considerations on Scientific Interpretation and Cosmology

Big Bang cosmology may stem from a set of biases related to large-scale observations. However, it has always faced observations that challenge certain aspects of this theory, especially the notion that the universe results from a gigantic expansion. This raises questions about the interpretation of data and the methodological approaches in this field. While it is natural to develop scenarios to explain observations, it is essential not to consider these scenarios as "established scientific truths" simply due to a lack of alternatives.

If, in the future, the Big Bang model were to prove incorrect, it could tarnish the credibility of experts in this field, especially since some have claimed that they only lack an understanding of the universe's first nanoseconds.

Take the example of the abundance of lithium in the universe. According to the standard model, this abundance cannot be attributed to primordial nucleosynthesis due to a lack of sufficient energy. Therefore, a scenario has been proposed: lithium would be produced by the interaction of high-energy cosmic rays in space. Without disputing the possible validity of this hypothesis, considering it a "established scientific truth" closes a question that should remain open to examination and debate.

The Big Bang cosmology is based on many similar elements, often influenced by observational or interpretative biases. Even before the data provided by the James Webb telescope came to challenge this model, it would have been wise to consider it as one explanation among others, plausible but highly debatable, and not as an indisputable truth.

Let's go back to the 1920s, a period that marked a turning point toward Big Bang cosmology. Before these years, the consensus was that the universe was infinite and static. Einstein, after developing the concepts of space-time, attempted to formulate the workings of the universe. This is the birth of the theory of general relativity.

At that time, the first observations of Redshift from intergalactic signals took place. Initially, Einstein thought that this Redshift must have another origin than the galaxies moving away from each other; he explored other hypotheses and proposed that of tired light. However, this theory would not match the observations. Nonetheless, Einstein may have had the right intuition at that moment regarding the idea that the Redshift is not related to the galaxies moving apart.

At first, the big bang was not unanimously accepted; for example, Fred Hoyle rejected this theory throughout his life. He proposed a theory of a static universe, where there would be a continuous production of light matter in the intergalactic regions, but he was willing to consider that the Redshift was the result of galaxies moving away from each other.

This theory was discredited because it failed to explain certain observations, especially those related to the transfer of time reference frames. However, Fred Hoyle's intuition was probably correct when it came to the idea of a universe that is, in some way, infinite and static.

Today, the numerous observations pose challenges to the standard theory, primarily those concerning the compatibility of evolutionary scenarios of structures with a universe evolving in a big-bang type manner. However, as long as interference phenomena are not taken into account in the analysis of distant radiations, the scientific community is likely to remain committed to this model.

As a result, the divergence in interpretations of observations is likely to grow, as the λCDM model struggles to explain the workings of the universe. Some propose to retain the big-bang theory while pushing back the start date. Others lean towards the influence of parallel or mirror worlds to explain the evolution of large structures. Still others consider a modified gravity approach, but even within the framework of the big-bang, this will not provide explanations for the evolutions of large structures.

Some new theories attempt to reconcile a big bang scenario with the deep inhomogeneities of the "young" universe and the early formation of supermassive black holes very "early" in the big bang model. These are the theories of cyclic universes or the existence of multiverses. However, they raise issues regarding the homogeneity of the cosmic microwave background, and they only postpone the contradictions of the big bang without allowing for an understanding of the underlying mechanisms behind the observations.

Although these hypotheses seem to address the observations, they bring forth additional questions, what would be the evolutionary mechanisms of these rebounds? Or how is the principle of causality maintained (in the case of multiverses or parallel universes)?

The cyclic entropy cosmology described here is based on popular science data, although imprecise, it seems to provide a more credible explanation of reality. The universe would indeed be infinite in dimension, static, and infinite in time from a causal perspective.

We need to go beyond the theory of general relativity; to do this, we must distinguish what is correct in Albert Einstein's concepts and what is likely false.

By associating the motion of celestial bodies with a four-dimensional space, Einstein would have fundamentally challenged the idea that gravity is linked to an intrinsic mass property of matter, which led to the Schwarzschild metric, the only part that would actually work from general relativity for calculating trajectories over relatively short times.

On the other hand, Einstein assumed that the void is empty and that this void is homogeneous throughout the universe in order to successfully establish a formulation of the entire universe. This hypothesis would paradoxically be false; it is this hypothesis that would have given rise to the concept of dark matter, which is precisely an absence of homogeneity in the universe.

It is therefore necessary to go beyond Einstein's theories, just as Einstein had surpassed Newton's at his time. We should introduce a relative variation of mass into the Schwarzschild metric (the concept of mass being used solely for calculations). By integrating this new parameter, we could better understand stellar evolution.

It would be pertinent to question certain fundamental notions, such as the invariability of the speed of light and wave-particle duality. Should we consider a duality of simultaneous states or a duality of possible states, knowing that the measurement itself induces a determining geometric stress? The Young's double-slit experiment demonstrates that waves can interfere with one another, while the material presence of a sensor seems to cause a wave-particle transition, thus preventing us from defining the intrinsic nature of light independently of observation. In this approach, light would be the most elementary form of matter, capable of existing in two distinct states — wave or particle — and easily transitioning from one to the other depending on the geometric stress applied to it.

Conclusion

It would be essential to consider interference phenomena, which would involve integrating the variation of the observer's characteristics during the propagation time of the waves arriving from distant space. This disparity between their past and present characteristics at the moment of wave reception would affect the perception of the observed events. This would imply the need to perform a reference frame transfer, taking into account the observer's characteristics at the cosmic moment when the past event occurred. This should be done for all aspects of physics: dimension, temperature, relative progression of time.

This is the only way to explain the Redshift (due to the variability of dimensions), the temperatures of the coldest bodies (due to the variability of the observer's temperature at the time of emission), and the rate of the passage of time (due to the variability of the passage of time for the observer).

If we consider a globally flat universe, there would be a transformation of energy into matter at the periphery of galaxies, and conversely, a transformation of matter into energy at the center of black holes. That is why this cosmology is referred to as cyclical entropy, as it would involve processes of entropic creation and destruction.

There would no longer be many paradoxes, as those stemming from the standard model are generally no longer present. Let's just mention the most problematic ones:

The "flatness of the Universe," which corresponds to the homogeneity of the cosmic microwave background, could be explained by the fact that this global homogeneity arises from the nucleosynthesis of our own region of the universe, which itself depends on an unimpeded dilution of energy in the vacuum.

The absence of "natural" antimatter in the universe could come from the fact that the production of antimatter is linked to transient dynamic effects, either in the context of tests at the LHC or in the context of violent transitions at the edges of galaxies.

The absence of a candidate particle for dark matter would confirm that this hypothesis (dark matter being matter that would interact only through gravity) is being misused to explain all perceived forms of mass without relation to standard calculations.

Variations in Redshift could be explained by the history of the solar system. The tension on the values of the H0 constant would be due to the fact that Redshift results from variations at atomic dimensions. It is noted that the so-called acceleration of the universe, 8 billion years after the big bang, coincides with the formation date of the solar system.

The universe would consist of a flat space-time in which bubbles of curved space-time (galaxies) evolve, appearing infinite in space and time.

The process of nucleosynthesis should be reevaluated, taking into account variable physical conditions depending on density zones. This includes the outer regions of galaxies, the diffusion axes of black holes, and more generally, the transitions between different density zones.

The large structures would evolve according to mechanisms dictated by the laws of physics and the deformations of space-time. Those that currently exist would have a history much older than the 13.8 billion years generally attributed to Earth.

The presentation of this cosmology is very brief here, as the means to verify the hypotheses are limited, both in terms of observations and empirical calculations. However, these hypotheses offer a coherent vision of the functioning of the universe that deserves to be verified in a future we hope is near.

Table of Illustrations

Figure 1: The massive galaxy ZF-UDS-7329 © NASA/Cover Images/SIPA Valisoa Rasolofo & J. Paiano·February 23, 2024

Figure 2 Source Sky & Space, no. 590, August-September 2023

Figure 3 Equation of General Relativity

Figure 4 Source NewScientist: How redshift colors our view of the history of the universe, October 14, 2015

Figure 5 Science Post: What is the cosmic microwave background, and why is it so important. Brice Louvet, space and science expert, July 7, 2023, 4:23 PM

Figure 6 Measurement of the coldest bodies according to observation ages, illustration by the author inspired by "The Credibility of the Big Bang Theory" Hubert Reeves, November 21, 2014

Figure 7 Conference illustration "The Future of Life on Earth", April 27, 2017

Figure 8 The primordial galaxies with the James Webb telescope. French Astronomical Society, Wednesday, February 8, 2023, at 7 PM

Figure 9 sciencepost.fr image from the Webb telescope of the galaxy cluster SMACS 0723. The first galaxies in the Universe are surprisingly bright. By Brice Louvet. November 10, 2023

Figure 10 Excerpt from a conference "Measuring Space-Time Distortions with Light Deflection" Camille Bonvin and Nastassia Grimm. December 23, 2023, GENEVA

Figure 11 Author's illustration, scope of view

Figure 12 public.planck.fr/results/221-the-sky-seen-by-planck-in-color, Dec 10, 2013

Figure 13: Bing Images: on the left, a representation of space-time curved by the presence of Earth, on the right, a representation of space-time curved by more massive bodies, neutron stars, and black holes

Figure 14 Supermassive black hole: a nascent quasar observed by Alma, Futura Science 31 LAURENT SACCO March 2020

Figure 15 View of an observation field of the Universe. Lecture at the Paris Astronomical Institute, The 5th Night of Astronomy at IAP, "Modeling the Universe on a Computer." June 17, 2023

Figure 16 : 1 : IPR Conference Françoise COMBES May 2, 2017, 2 : Why is galaxy formation inefficient? Pierre Guillard (IAP) April 4, 2023

Figure 17 NGC 1277, image Hubble Space Telescope / NASA

Figure 18 : In this simulation, where each point represents a galaxy, the universe appears to have a large-scale filamentary structure. (Https://irfu.cea.fr/Phocea/Vie_des_labos/Ast/ast.php?id_ast=3859, January 18, 2017)

Figure 19 This artist's view (not to scale) illustrates the trajectory of the fast radio burst FRB 20220610A, by Jean-Baptiste Jacquin. Published on October 24, 2023, at 7:00 PM

Figure 20 Illustration by the author

Figure 21 " Unprecedented observation of the magnetism of Sgr A*, the central black hole of our galaxy " It's happening up there, December 4, 2015

Figure 22 : Casimir forces on parallel plates

Figure 23 Conference at IAP, "Modeling the universe on a computer." Saturday, June 17, 2023. Selected excerpt from this conference.

Figure 24 NASA, ESA, The Hubble Heritage. NGC 1068. Futura-science, December 11, 2019

Figure 25 Excerpt from conference, Institut d'astrophysique de Paris, April 2023

Figure 26 "Minkowski Space", Wikipedia, November 11, 2023

Figure 27 View of distant objects in the solar system, beyond the eight known planets, image extracted from a National Geographic article by Nadia Drake

Figure 28 Astronomers discover a new "quasi-dark" galaxy. Sciencepost, October 26, 2023, 4:04 PM

Figure 29 photographic from 1952. © PALOMAR OBSERVATORY/SOLANO, ET AL, futura-sciences.com/sciences/actualites/astronomie

Figure 30 https://fr.wikibooks.org/wiki/Le_noyau_atomique/La_loi_de_désintégration_radioactive

Figure 31 Artistic illustration "Neutrinos from the center of the Milky Way detected for the first time" Source: Radio-Canada.ca, July 12, 2023

Figure 32 Visualization of the apparent lateral deformation. Source: Techno-Science.net news/dark-matter-significantly-deforms-our-galaxy, October 4, 2023

Figure 33 Rotation speed of stars in the spiral galaxy NGC 6946 as a function of their distance (in Mpc). Source: Futura-science.com, October 5, 2012

Figure 34 Hubble Space Telescope image of the luminous blue fast transient (LFBOT) AT2023FHN, HUBBLESITE, October 5, 2023

Figure 35 Orion Nebula, David Duarte Astrophotography

Figure 36 © NASA, ESA, CSA, A. Levan (Radboud University) November 24, 2023

Figure 37 © NASA, ESA, CSA, Joseph Olmsted (STScI) November 24, 2023

Figure 38 As it enters the atmosphere, the particle triggers chain reactions detected by the Telescope Array in the United States

Bibliographie

SIMON SINGH, The Story of the Big Bang, Pluriel Edition, July 2011

Glazebrook, Karl, Nanayakkara, Themiya, Schreiber, A massive galaxy that formed its stars at z∼11 ARXIV [2308.05606], February 2024

EVRARD-OUICEM ELJAOUHARI, THE DAY the universe tipped over, Sky & Space no 590, August-September 2023

ANDREW PONTZEN, How redshift colors our view of the history of the universe, New Scientist, October 14, 2015

BRICE LOUVET, What is the cosmic microwave background, and why is it so important, Science Post, July 7, 2023.

FABRICE NICOT, How the Most Massive Black Holes in the Universe Formed, Science and the Future, March 11, 2021.

FELIPE ASENJIO, Electromagnetic redshift in anisotropic cosmologies, ARXIV [1801.05472], 2018/01/16

DANIEL WHALEN, radio emission from a $z =$ 10.3 Black Hole in UHZ1, ARXIV [2308.03837], 11 Sep 2023

LAURENT SACCO, Supermassive black hole: a newborn quasar observed by Alma, Futura science, 31/03/2020

ADRIEN, Astronomers detect inexplicable radio bursts, Techno-Science.net, 28/10/2023

Jean-Baptiste Jacquin, A fast radio burst 8 billion years old, LE MONDE, 24 October 2023

DONALD PELLETIER ET AL., NGC1277 lenticular galaxy located in the constellation Perseus WIKIPEDIA, January 7, 2024

M. Johnson et al., Unprecedented observation of the magnetism of Sgr A*, the central black hole of our galaxy, It's happening up there, Dec. 4, 2015

Nathalie Mayer, Magnetic fields shape spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, Futura Science, Dec. 11, 2019

Henri Poincaré et al, Minkowski Space, Wikipedia, November 11, 2023

Geraint Lewis, In the early days of the Universe, time seems to flow five times slower, GEO WITH AFP, July 9, 2023

Fabrice Nicot, Discovery of the echo of a cosmic feast dating back 200 years, Sciences and Future, June 21, 2023

Brice Louvet, Astronomers discover a new "quasi-dark" galaxy, Sciencepost, October 26, 2023

Brice Louvet, The first galaxies of the Universe are surprisingly bright, Sciencepost, November 10, 2023

Planck collaboration, A LOOK AT THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE, PUBLIC.PLANCK, January 11, 2011

Mewtow, The atomic nucleus/The law of radioactive decay, WIKIBOOKS.ORG, December 14, 2023

ALAIN LABELLE, Neutrinos from the center of the Milky Way detected for the first time, RADIO-CANADA, July 12, 2023

ADRIEN, Dark matter significantly distorts our galaxy, Techno-Science.net, October 4, 2023

Mond Theory: what is it? FutuRA SCIENCE, October 5, 2012

Ashley Chrimes, AT2023fhn (the finch): fast blue optical transient at a great distance from its host galaxy, ARXIV [2307.01771] October 3, 2023

Article inspired by the work of Kenzo Ishikawa, Neutrino-Photon Interactions: Unraveling the Mysteries of Particle Physics, ISSUES.FR, September 2023

ADRIEN, An unimaginable temperature envelope surrounds our galaxy: where does it come from?, Techno-Science.net, 12/21/2024

AUDIO SOURCES

"The Credibility of the Big Bang Theory" Hubert Reeves, November 21, 2014

"The Future of Life on Earth" Hubert Reeves, April 27, 2017

"The Theory of Special Relativity," AMAZING SCIENCE, 2018

"General Relativity," AMAZING SCIENCE, 2019

"Expansion of the Universe and Cosmological Controversy", Louise Breuval November 17, 2022

Conference at the Paris Astronomical Institute, "A Synthetic Universe to the Rescue to Understand Our Own, in the Era of JWST and Euclid" Clotilde Laigle, June 17, 2023

Why is galaxy formation inefficient? Pierre Gaillard (IAP) April 4, 2023

Conference at the IAP, "Modeling the Universe on a Computer". Saturday, June 17, 2023

"Primordial Galaxies with the James Webb Telescope". Astronomical Society of France, Wednesday, February 8, 2023 at 7 PM

Measuring spacetime deformations with light bending, COSMIC BLUESHIFT, UNIVERSITY OF GENEVA, SEPTEMBER 2023 

Chronological Information:

Staggered reflection over a little more than a year, published on January 1, 2025